[1]
Centaurium erythraea
[2]
Centaurium erythraea
[3]
Centaurium erythraea
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Practical ecological knowledge for the temperate reader. |
Family: Gentianaceae - Gentian [E-flora]
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[1]
Centaurium erythraea |
[2]
Centaurium erythraea |
[3]
Centaurium erythraea |
"Centaurium erythraea is a ANNUAL/BIENNIAL growing to 0.3 m (1ft) by 0.2 m (0ft 8in). It is in flower from June to October, and the seeds ripen from August to October.
The species is hermaphrodite (has both male and female organs) and is pollinated by Bees, flies, beetles. The plant is self-fertile. Suitable for: light (sandy) and medium (loamy) soils, prefers well-drained soil and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It prefers dry or moist soil." [PFAF]
"General: Biennial herb from a short taproot; stems erect, many, simple to branched near the base, 10-50 cm tall." [IFBC-E-flora]
"Leaves: Basal leaves forming a tuft, egg-shaped to oblanceolate, unstalked, 1.5-4 cm long, rounded at the tip, 3- to 5-veined; lower stem leaves similar to basal; upper stem leaves reduced, narrower, becoming more pointed at the tip." [IFBC-E-flora]
"Habitat/Range: Mesic to dry roadsides, fields and waste places in the lowland zone; frequent in SW and SE BC (Kootenay Lake); introduced from Eurasia." [IFBC-E-flora]
"Habitat: The plant is found in the Mediterranean region and as far as Britain and Scandinavia. It is cultivated in the U.S." [PDR]
"Centaurium erythraea Rafn, Common Centaury, Forking Centaury. Lawns, disturbed areas; native of Europe and w. Asia. July-September. [= C, K; = C. minus – RAB, later homonym; = C. umbellatum – F, G, later homonym]" [Weakley FSMAS]
Status: Exotic [E-flora]
Hazards"There is a lack of clinical safety and toxicity data for centaury and further investigation of these aspects is required." [HerbalMed3]"Inform the client that no supporting research is available to document any uses for or actions of this herb." [Skidmore-Roth MHH]
"No health hazards or side effects are known in conjunction with the proper administration of designated therapeutic dosages." [PDR]
"May cause mild abdominal discomfort and cramps. Contraindicated in patients with peptic ulcers. Safety during pregnancy and lactation has not been established [301]." [PFAF]
"Centaury is contra-indicated for individuals with peptic ulcers.(G52)" [HerbalMed3] "Because of its secretion-activating effect, the drug should not be administered in the presence of stomach or intestinal ulcers." [PDR]
"Caution the client not to use centaury during pregnancy and breastfeeding until more research is available." [Skidmore-Roth MHH]
"Caution the client not to confuse the three Centaurium spp. listed in the Scientifi c names section with other Centaurium spp. They are different herbs." [Skidmore-Roth MHH]
"Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Centaury) — Class 1, 2b (AHP; CAN). “In view of the lack of toxicity data, use of centaury during pregnancy and lactation is best avoided ... excessive use should be avoided” (CAN). Sources report contraindication of GI ulcer (AEH; PHR). None reported (PIP)." [HMH Duke]
LD50 (g/kg Body Weight) and Toxic Syndrome (Biological System) - "I.P LD50 of 12.13 g/kg. mice [135]. Symptoms: anorexia, syncope, piloerection, asthenia, diarrhea, convulsions" [Kuete TSAMP]
Edible Uses
"A Moroccan study (Jbilou et al. 2008) examined the insecticidal activity of extracts of P. harmala, and of six other plants, namely Centaurium erythraea, Ajuga iva, Aristolochia baetica, Pteridium aquilinum, and Raphanus raphanistrum, on larval development, α-amylase activity, and offspring production of Tribolium castaneum, the red flour beetle, a worldwide pest that consumes stored cereal grains and their products..." [Harmal Lansky]
Medicinal Uses
"There is little published information specifically concerning Centaurium erythraea. Bitter components support the traditional use of centaury as an appetite stimulant, although it is said to be less active than comparable bitter herbs, such as gentian. In view of the lack of pharmacological and toxicological data, excessive use should be avoided." [HerbalMed3]
"Centaury is reputed to act as a bitter, aromatic and stomachic. Traditionally, it has been used for anorexia and dyspepsia.(G2, G7, G52)" [HerbalMed3]
"CENTAURY (Centaurium/Erythraea spp.). Distribution The vartous species are widespread along the east side of the Cascades; through Nevada, Arizona, California, Baja California, usually in moist places, seeps, and alkaline bogs. Parts Used Whole plant, dried Method A Preparation Fresh Plant Tincture, 1 :2, 10 to 20 drops, Cold Infusion, 1 to 2 fluid ounces, both ten minutes before meals. Herb Uses Bitter tonic, same as Gentian." [Moore MPPW]
"Medicinal Parts: The medicinal parts are the dried, aerial parts of the flowering plant." [PDR]
"Characteristics: Centaury has a very bitter taste." [PDR]
"Production: Centaury consists of the dried aerial parts, in flower, of Centaurium erythraea. The plant is harvested during the flowering season and dried quickly to retain the flower color." [PDR]
"Unproven Uses: The drug is used for loss of appetite, dyspepsia and poor gastric secretion. In folk medicine, it is used for fever, worm infestation and as a hypotensive. It is also used for diabetes in Mallorca, and for expelling kidney stones in Egypt. Externally, it is used in the treatment of wounds." [PDR]
"Centaurium erythraea Rafn (Synonym: C umbellatum Gilib., C minus Moench, Erythraea centaurium Pers., Commonly Centaury), is a medicinal plant known for centuries; it was described by Dioscorides as early as in the first century A. D. For medicinal purposes its aerial flowering part, mostly called Centaurii herba or Herba centaurii minoris is used. According to some pharmocopoeias, this drug may include also C pulchellum (Sw.) Druce, C uliginosum (W. et K.) Beck (Synonym: C littorale ssp. uliginosum (W. et K.) Melderis) and C majus (Hoffm. et Link) Zeltner (Synonym: Erythraea major Hoffm. et Link). Comprehensive reports on the taxonomy of the genus Centaurium were published inter alia by Zeltner (1970) and Melderis (1972)." [Bajaj MAPS 1]
"Centaurium erythraea is distributed in oceanic Europe and the Mediterranean (Meusel et al. 1978). Formerly, Centaurii herba was mainly collected from local wild populations throughout Europe; today it is collected mostly from wild populations in the Mediterranean region, mainly in Yugoslavia, Algeria, and Morocco." [Bajaj MAPS 1]
"The crude drug is utilized for preparing tinctures, liquid extracts, syrups, wines, and powders. Since its medicinal application makes mostly use of its high content of bitter substances, it is part of many well-known preparations, such as Tinctura amara, Species amarae, and Vinum am arum to name a few. The pure extract of the drug is known under the name Extractum centaurii minoris and is applied in the treatment of the diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, eczema, wounds, as well as for a sedative, antihelminthic etc. The comprehensive account of its pharmacology was published by Van der Sluis (1985). Further, the drug is used for preparing commercial beverages by some companies (Jan Becher, F. Cinzano, Martini and Rossi)." [Bajaj MAPS 1]
"Dioscorides (III 7) describes lesser centaury with an
angular stem over a span long, resembling St John’s wort
or oregano, with flowers faintly purple like rose campion,
small and longish leaves like rue, fruit like grains of wheat
and a small useless bitter root. The use of comparisons is
interesting: St John’s wort Hypericum perforatum also has a
smooth stem with small opposite leaves and a branched
flowerhead. This description can be taken as common
centaury. The only discrepancy is that, as Fuchs comments,
according to Dioscorides, it grows in marshy places
whereas ‘everyone knows that with us it grows commonly
in hard, dry, grassy fields and meadows’.
Dioscorides uses the name centaury for two plants: the
lesser centaury and the greater centaury (III 6), which is a
metre tall with blue flowers, serrated walnut-like leaves
and a substantial red root. It is probably a knapweed in
the genus Centaurea. Lesser means the smaller of the two
related plants, and this monograph discusses the use of
the lesser centaury, which is now called common centaury
and remains in use today. The illustration given by Fuchs
is of centaury (1980) and later authors such as Culpeper
and Miller continue to refer to ‘the red ordinary small
centaury’.
The two plants are very distinguishable but this introduces the possibility of confusion between the two entries
in subsequent herbals. The listing of two unrelated species
is significant as centaury is one of the four panaceas
ascribed by Pliny to Chiron, the centaur who is the archetype of healers (Bostock 1855). The four panaceas were
Asclepion, Heracleon, Chironion and Centaurion, and
Dawson (1949) gives Centaurion as Centaurea centaurium
L. The association with Chiron, the centaur indicates the
long usage of these plants and associates both with wound
healing. For example, in the Iliad of Homer, which
describes the Trojan War, Eurypylos says, ‘Cut the arrow
out of my thigh … and put kind medicines on it, good
ones, which they say you have been told of by Akhilleus,
since Kheiron, most righteous of the Kentauroi, told him
about them’ (Theoi Project 2008)." [TWHT]
"Returning to the recommendations of the mortals, greater centaury has a large, red astringent root and, comparing the two entries in Dioscorides, the emphasis is more on wound healing for greater centaury than it is for common centaury, and common centaury may not be the wound herb of Chiron. However, it is also strongly recommended for use in wounds. Mattioli argues that the Arabic writers confounded lesser and greater centaury and thus the texts are unclear, but later texts also lack clarity. Some authors consider them together whereas others give two entries." [TWHT]
"Eczema can be a complex condition to treat as it occurs in phases, with or without apparent cause (Brown & Reynolds 2006).... In my experience, it is possible to exacerbate the itching and soreness, and a gentle prescription in eczema is important as the alterative action must not be severe. Fumitory can act either alone as the hepatic or with another mild hepatic such as dandelion Taraxacum officinale or a bitter such as centaury Centaurium erythraea." [TWHT]
"Hool gives a useful ‘blood purifying’ medicine for eczema and skin disease that contains four herbs included in this book: burdock Arctium lappa 1 oz, centaury Centaurium erythraea 1 oz, yellow dock Rumex crispus 12 oz, fumitory Fumaria officinalis 12 oz, teaspoonful of cayenne. Simmer in 3 pints of water for 30 minutes. Cool, strain, take a wineglassful, which is 2 fl oz (60 mL) four times a day." [TWHT]
"In the more local tradition too this application appears in the Myddfai texts, with hyssop and centaury Centaurium erythraea pounded and strained and mixed with white of egg and drunk for 3 days for tightness of the chest; and red fennel and the tops of hyssop, bruised with mallows and boiled to strengthen the lungs, throat and chest." [TWHT]
Centaurium minus Moench. = Erythraea centaurium (L.) Pers.
VN: European Centaury (E). Tausendgiildenkraut (G). Centauree (petite);
Erythree (F).
KE: Herb permitted for oral use.
SZ: Herb permitted as herbal tea.
FR: Flowering top permitted for oral use
BE: Flowering top permitted as traditional appetite stimulant.
SW: Centaurium species are classified as natural product. [Smet, AEHD-2]
"This pink-flowered annual herb is a relative of gentian. Native to Europe, it has spread to North America, Africa, and parts of Asia and Australia. The dried stems and leaves have historically been used externally to treat wounds and internally as a digestive tonic. Today the plant’s bitter iridoid glycosides—powerful compounds that the plant uses to defend itself—make it useful as an ingredient in bitters and vermouths." [Stewart TDB]
"Coffin’s pre- scription for jaundice is to use 1 oz of each of barberry bark Berberis vulgaris, centaury Centaurium erythraea, bog bean Menyanthes trifoliata, agrimony and raspberry leaf Rubus idaeus decocted in a quart of water. After straining, 1/2 oz of cayenne pepper is added, along with mountain flax Linum catharticum if the patient is constipated, and a wineglassful (60 mL) of the mixture taken three or four times daily. After 3–4 days, the patient receives a vapour bath. If his jaundice is not relieved, a standard lobelia Lobelia inflata emetic is given and the bath repeated." [TWHT]
"He affirms that burdock has cured many cases of eczema and he recommends an excellent mixture of 1 oz each of burdock and centaury Centaurium erythraea, 12 oz each of dock Rumex crispus and fumitory Fumaria officinalis and 1 teaspoon of cayenne pepper Capsicum annuum, the total to be simmered in 3 pints of water for 10 minutes. A wineglassful (60 mL) of the cooled, strained liquid is taken three times daily." [TWHT]
"Centaury. N. F. IV. Centaurium. Common European Centaury. Herba Centaurii, P.
G. Erythraea Centaurium (L.) Pers. Centaurium Centaurium (L.) Wight. (Fam. Gentianaceae.)
....Odor faint but characteristic; taste persistently bitter. Centaury yields not
more than 5 per cent. of ash." N. F. The fresh, bitter,- odorless herb yields an odorous,
pungent distillate in which Mehu (J. P. C., 1862, xliii, 38) has found valeric acid, also a
peculiar, colorless, crystalline, non-nitrogenous substance, erythrocentaurin,
C27H24O8. Erythrocentaurin occurs in needle-shaped crystals, fusing at 136o G.
(276.8o F.), and crystallizing easily on cooling again. They are strongly reddened by
exposure to solar light, and reacquire their colorless character upon being again
dissolved and crystallized, or by mere heating to 130o C. (266o P.). They are almost
insoluble in cold water, more readily soluble in boiling water, alcohol, ether, and
chloroform. Carbon disulphide, benzene, volatile and fatty oils dissolve them easily. J.
F. Huneker believes that erythrocentaurin exists also in American centaury. (See
Sabbatia.) Leuderich assigns to erythrocentaurin the formula C9H14O5 and states
that in its decomposition a dextrorotatory carbohydrate is produced, while R. Reis
states that the formula of the crystals is C10H10O3. (Ap. Ztg., 1911, 148.) Herissey
and Bourdier isolated a glucoside .from centaury, erytaurin (J. P. C., 1908, No. 6), but
later R. Reis could not detect a glucoside in it. (Ap. Ztg., 1911, 148.) The common
centaury of Europe has tonic properties very closely resembling those of gentian. The
dose of centaury is from twenty to forty grains (1.2-2.3 Gm.)." [Remington USD20]
"Centaury (Fig. 5.2), a member of the gentian family, is indigenous to Europe (particularly the Mediterranean region) and northern Africa; it has also become naturalized in North America. The crude drug consists of the dried aerial parts of Centaurium erythraea. Centaury is nearly odorless and has a strong bitter taste. Some of its bitter principles are identical to those in gentian (gentiopicroside), and some are very closely related chemically (sweroside, centapicrin, swertiamarin)." [Schulz RP]
Centaurium erythraea Rafn. - Hypoglycaemic Cholarectic, chologogue Appetite stimulating - A decoction of the plant's aerial part has some benefits: • on diabetes; • on liver; • as an appetite stimulator. [Rauter NPNM]
"Centaury is used to treat dyspepsia, lack of gastric secretions, and loss of appetite. In traditional herbal medicine, centaury is used as an anthelmintic, an antidiabetic, an antihypertensive, and a treatment for kidney stones. No scientifi c evidence supports any of these uses or actions. Centaury may be given to infants and children to treat anxiety, insomnia, tension, colic, irritable bowel syndrome, and topical infl ammation. It may also be used to treat symptoms of attention defi cit hyperactivity disorder (Romm, 2000). Centaury is commonly used in the United Kingdom and Australia; its use is less common in the United States." [Skidmore-Roth MHH]
"No supporting evidence exists to document any actions of this herb. However, initial studies have suggested that the xanthone chemical components in centaury may show promise as antioxidants and that they may possess some antiinflammatory properties, although these are thought to be weak. The phenolic acid may be an antipyretic, and gentiopicroside, a monoterpenoid, is an antimalarial." [Skidmore-Roth MHH]
"Centaurium umbellatum Gilib. (Gentianaceae) - aerial parts - "Tonic for the digestive system; for dyspepsia, hepatitis; bitter aromatic, improving appetite (regulating wind, bloating) (tea: equal quantities of common centaury, mint, chamomile and lemon balm); antidiabetic, antipyretic, soothing sore throats, treating stomach ulcers (tea), lowering cholesterol (tea —equal amounts of common centaury, juniper, prickly juniper, mint and primrose) E: Analgesic (spinal pain) (compress—common centaury is added to grape pomace brandy higher than grade 21 (i.e., over 50 % ABV) and then left to stand for 2 weeks)" [Pieroni EBDBalk]
"Centaury consists of the dried aerial parts (leaves, stems and flowers) of Centaurium erythraea Rafin (Fam. Gentianaceae), a plant native to Europe (Mediterranean region) and naturalized in North America. It contains, like gentian, amarogentin, gentiopicroside and related bitter compounds including centapicrin, swartiamarin, sweroside. Centapicrin has a bitterness value 15 times greater than gentiopicroside. Centaury is used, like gentian, to treat indigestion and appetite loss. The drug (1-2 g) is extracted with cold water (150 ml) for 6-10 h. The macerate is warmed before use. Centaury is supported by the German Commission E for dyspeptic complaints and loss of appetite." [Capasso PQR]
"Indications (Centaury) — Adenopathy (f; JLH); Anemia (f; HHB); Anorexia (2; CAN; KOM; PH2); Cancer (f; JLH); Cancer, breast (f; JLH); Cancer, ear (f; JLH); Cancer, face (f; JLH); Cancer, lip (f; JLH); Cancer, liver (f; JLH); Cancer, spleen (f; JLH); Cancer, stomach (f; JLH); Cancer, tongue (f; JLH); Cancer, uterus (f; JLH); Cholecystosis (f; HHB; PNC); Diabetes (f; PHR; PH2); Dropsy (f; HHB); Dysmenorrhea (f; HHB); Dyspepsia (2; CAN; KOM; PH2); Fever (1; CAN; HHB; PHR; PH2); Fibroid (f; JLH); Gastrosis (1; JLH; PH2); Gout (f; HHB); Hepatosis (f; JLH; PNC); High Blood Pressure (f; PHR; PH2); Induration (f; JLH); Inflammation (1; PHR; PH2); Insomnia (f; CAN); Jaundice (f; HHB); Kidney Stone (f; PHR; PH2); Malaria (1; CAN); Mastosis (f; JLH); Nervousness (f; CAN); Neuralgia (f; HHB); Otosis (f; JLH); Pain (f; HHB); Parotosis (f; JLH); Sclerosis (f; JLH); Scrofula (f; HHB); Splenosis (f; JLH); Stomachache (f; HHB); Swelling (1; CAN); Tonsilosis (f; JLH); Uterosis (f; HHB); Wart (f; JLH); Worm (f; PHR; PH2); Wound (f; PH2)." [HMH Duke]
Morocco - "Treatment of asthma, eczema, jaundice, intestinal parasitic infestation, rheumatism, wounds and sores, reduce blood pressure, gastrointestinal smooth muscle spasm, edema and digestive disorders (loss of appetite, stomach discomfort, bloating, indigestion), liver and gall bladder stimulant [126-130]." [Kuete TSAMP]
"Part used is the dried flowering herb; not to be confused with the genus Centaurea (Compositae). Major commercial sources are Morocco and eastern Europe (WICHTL)." [Leung ECNI]
"Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. Used in some bitter tonic preparations in Europe to increase gastric secretions for dyspeptic discomfort and loss of appetite (BLUMENTHAL 1; WICHTL). Also reportedly used in some cosmetic and toiletry preparations for its alleged soothing and astringent properties.18" [Leung ECNI]
"Used since ancient times in Egypt to treat hypertension and to eliminate kidney stones, and in Europe as a tonic, stomachic, febrifuge, and sedative. Used in lotions to remove freckles, spots, and other skin blemishes and in treating cancers.19" [Leung ECNI]
"Less liable to upset the digestion than most vegetable bitters and so a preferable alternative to ‘gentian’ (under which name, or as ‘red gentian’, it has
passed in some areas), Centaurium erythraea has been recorded very widely
in the British Isles for use as a tonic. Like most tonics it has sometimes been
prized for ‘cleansing the blood’ (hence the name bloodwort recorded for it in
Shropshire1) or ‘strengthening the nerves’ (in the Isle of Scilly2 and in South
Uist in the Outer Hebrides3), while in the Highlands it has had the special role
of promoting appetite in tubercular patients.4
Centaury has also enjoyed some subsidiary popularity as an indigestion
remedy (Yorkshire,5 Lancashire,6 Cumberland,7 the Highlands8) and as a cure
for biliousness (Isle of Man9). In Cardiganshire,10 on the other hand, it has
been used for kidney trouble, and in the Highlands11 and Outer Hebrides12
for colic. That heavy emphasis overall on righting and stimulating the system
seems sharply at variance with a lingering
reputation in the Outer Hebrides13 for also
staunching haemorrhages; but the plant
was recommended as a wound healer by
Classical writers, and a large quantity of its
charred remains has been excavated from a
Roman army hospital on the Rhine.14
Irish departures from service as a tonic are
fewer by comparison. Louth15 completes a predominantly Irish Sea focus of centaury’s use for
indigestion, ‘Ulster’16 has known it as a cough
remedy, while in Wicklow17 it has been rated
excellent for the liver (perhaps the biliousness
for which it has been valued by the Manx, in
whose language it had a name translating as
‘jaundice herb’18)." [MPFT]
"The unavailability of C erythraea is further due to its following properties, which make its cultivation difficult: (1) unpredictable germination of its seeds, (2) the inability of the plant to grow in dense stands, (3) its inability to compete with common weeds. In addition, the harvesting has to be done carefully so as not to damage the rosette population. Therefore its cultivation is labor-intensive and expensive; moreover, the unpredictable germination makes its results difficult to guarantee." [Bajaj MAPS 1]
"Mainly the crude herb." [Leung ECNI]
"Regulatory Status. Regulated in the United States as a dietary supplement. Approved for use as a natural flavoring in alcoholic bev- erages only (§172.510). Herb subject of a German therapeutic monograph (in daily dose of 1–2 g); use not recommended since effec- tiveness is not verified (BLUMENTHAL 1)." [Leung ECNI]
"Dosages for oral administration (adults) for traditional uses recommended in standard herbal reference texts are given below. Herb 2–4 g as an infusion three times daily.(G7) Liquid extract 2–4 mL (1 : 1 in 25% alcohol) three times daily.(G7)" [HerbalMed3]
"Mode of Administration: Comminuted herb for infusions and other bitter-tasting preparations for internal use. Preparation: Tea: Brew 2 to 3 gm drug with 150 ml boiling water and strain after 15 minutes; Centaurium Extract: extract of 1 part drug to 10 parts water and 1 part 98% ethanol steamed till thickened (EB6)." [PDR]
"Liquid extract: 1:1 25% ethanol (V/V) (BHP83). Daily Dosage: The average daily dose is 6 gm of drug or 1 to 2 gm of extract; single dose is 1 gm." [PDR]
"The powdered drug is taken 3 times daily on a wafer with honey; the infusion is taken 1/2 hour before meals." [PDR]
"The daily dose of extractum Centaurii fluidum is 2 to 5 ml." [PDR]
Centaurium erythraea - DRIED HERB (OR INFUSED/DECOCTED) G/DOSE/X DAY 2–4 g/3x/day TINCTURE ML/DOSE/X DAY 2–4 mL/3x/day - Hepatic - PMS [BMWH]
"Dosages (Centaury) — 2–4 g herb as tea 3 ×/day (CAN); 1 g/cup tea (HHB); 1–2 g single dose; 3–6 g/day (HHB); 6 g/day (KOM); 2–4 ml (1:1 in 25% alcohol) 3 ×/day (CAN, PNC); 1–2 g extract (KOM; PHR)." [HMH Duke]
"Plant Parts Used: Flowers, leaves, stem Dosages • Adult PO fluid extract: 1-3 ml taken before meals (1:5 dilution) (Hobbs, 1995) • Adult PO cold infusion: 1-2 oz tid (Moore, 1996) • Adult PO tea: steep 2-4 g in 150 ml boiling water (Jellin et al, 2008) • Adult PO powder: 1 g taken tid with honey on a cracker • Adult PO tincture: 0.5-1 ml taken before meals (1:2 dilution) (Moore, 1996) • Adult PO whole herb: 1-2 g taken daily" [Skidmore-Roth MHH]
"CENTAURIUM (Erythraea, Centaury) WHOLE PLANT. Fresh Plant Tincture [1:2] 10-20 drops before meals. Cold Infusion 1-2 ounces, also before meals." [Moore(1995)]
"An alcoholic extract of centaury (200 mL/plate) was antimutagenic in Salmonella typhimurium strains TA8 and TA100.(G52)" [HerbalMed3]
"Centaury increases gastric secretion and salivation because of the typical bitter reaction, also antiphlogistic and antipyretic effects have been studied in various animal experiments. The effect for loss of appetite, stomach complaints and dyspepsia can also be attributed to the amaroids." [PDR]
"Activities (Centaury) — Antiedemic (1; CAN); Antiinflammatory (1; PHR); Antimalarial (1; CAN); Antipyretic (1; CAN; PHR; PH2); Bitter (1; CAN; HHB; PHR); Secretagogue (1; PHR; PH2); Sedative (f; CAN); Sialagogue (1; PHR; PH2); Stomachic (f; CAN); Tonic (f; PNC)." [HMH Duke]
"Though 1,5-dihydroxy-3-methoxyxanthone (8), isolated from the roots of the Egyptian plant Centaurium spicatum, was not active against C. albicans, Candida krusei, Candida glabrata, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, C. neoformans, Mycobacterium intracellulare, S. aureus, and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) [89], activity was reported against M. tuberculosis 90-221387 (MIC: 6.3 μg/mL) [12], A. niger (MIC80: 125 μg/mL), A. flavus, and A. fumigatus (MIC80: 31 μg/mL) [133]. Also, 1,6-dihydroxy-3,5-dimethoxyxanthone (9) did not show any antibacterial activity but exhibited moderate antifungal activities against C. krusei and C. neoformans, with IC50 values of 12.82 and 17.90 μg/mL, respectively [89]." [Kuete MPRA]
"An infusion of the dried flowering tops showed
in vitro hydroxyl radical and hypochlorus
acid scavenging activity.14 Orally adminis-
tered, a filtered water suspension of the dried
herb showed anti-inflammatory activity in a rat
model of polyarthritis and when topically ap-
plied in a cream (2.5–10%) in the air-pouch
granuloma bioassay. Antipyretic activity was
found in rats from oral administration of the
suspension against 2,4-dinitrophenol- and
amphetamine-induced hyperthermia.15 Anti-
pyretic activity of the herb is reported to be
due to phenolic acids.16 Hepatoprotective ac-
tivity against acetaminophen-induced toxicity
was shown from oral administration of a meth-
anol extract of the leaves.17
Gentiopicrin is reported to have antimalar-
ial properties (MERCK)." [Leung ECNI]
"Acids Phenolic. Protocatechuic, m- and p-hydroxybenzoic, vanillic, syringic, p-coumaric, ferulic, sinapic and caffeic, hydroxyterephthalic and 2,5-dihydroxyterephthalic acids among others." [HerbalMed3]
"Alkaloids Pyridine-type. Traces of gentianine, gentianidine, gentioflavine and others." [HerbalMed3] "Pyrridine alkaloids: gentianine, gentianidine" [PDR] "Gentianine; Gentianidine; Gentioflavine" [Skidmore-Roth MHH]
"Monoterpenoids Iridoids (bitters).(1, 2) Gentiopicroside (about 2%) as major, others include centapicrin, gentioflavoside, sweroside and swertiamarin; intensely bitter m-hydroxybenzoylesters of sweroside and catapicrin." [HerbalMed3] "Iridoide bitter principles (monoterpenes): in particular swertiamarin, including among others gentiopicrin, sweroside" [PDR] "Monoterpenoid Iridoids; Bitters; Gentiopicroside; Centapicrin; Gentiofl avoside; Sweroside; Swertiamarin" [Skidmore-Roth MHH]
"Triterpenoids Includes a- and b-amyrin, erythrodiol, crataegolic acid, oleanolic acid and sitosterol." [HerbalMed3]
"Xanthones Highly methylated xanthones, including eustomin and 8-demethyleustomin." [HerbalMed3] "Xanthones: including methyl bellidifoline" [PDR]
"Other constituents Flavonoids, fatty acids, alkanes and waxes." [HerbalMed3]
"The main group of secondary products are bitter secoiridoid glucosides, which
are very important from the medicinal point of view. Their major constituents are
swerosid-type secoiridoid glucosides (swertiamarin, gentiopicroside, sweroside,
Fig. 2). In addition, the plants contain esters of these secoiridoid glucosides (centapicrin, desacetylcentapicrin, Fig. 2), which are accumulated mainly in capsules.
The esters are much more bitter than free glucosides (by a factor of several
thousands). Highly bitter ester amarogentin, often reported from C. erythraea
(e.g., by List and Horhammer 1972), has not been confirmed by the detailed study
of Van der Sluis and Labadie (1978). The content of these compounds varies
slightly in different populations of this species. This might be correlated with two
different ploidy levels reported from this species (Zeltner 1970).
Further, some authors (e.g., Rulko and Witkiewicz 1972) published reports of
the isolation of alkaloids (mainly gentianine), which are analogs of secoiridoides
having nitrogen instead of oxygen in the pyran ring. Their presence may, however,
be only an artifact of extraction by ammonia (Van der Sluis 1985).
Xanthones are the second main type of secondary products of C. erythraea;
many hydroxy and methoxy derivatives of xanthone have been described (Neshta
et al. 1982, 1983 a, b, 1984; Takagi and Yamaki 1982; Van der Sluis 1985; Kaouadji
et al. 1986).
Moreover, C erythraea plants contain high amounts of fatty acids; oleanol
acid makes up 0.70/0 of its dry mass, other acids, such as stearin, palmitin, cerotin,
linolen, linol, and oleic acid, are present as well (List and Horhammer 1972). The
sterol spectrum of C erythraea was recently studied by Aquino et al. (1985)." [Bajaj MAPS 1]
"Meravj (1987) studied phenolics in calli and suspension cultures of C. erythraea. Contrary to the case of bitter substances, xanthones and phenolic acids were present in these nondifferentiated tissues. Usually the same substances were identified in actively growing (28 days) and stationary (51 days) calluses and in suspension (18 days, start of stationary phase). Even if the quantity of different phenolics changed, the main compounds in all cases were 1-hydroxy-3,5,6,7,8-pentamethoxy-xanthone, 1,2,3-trihydroxy-5-methoxy-xanthone and cblorogenic acid. The number of different compounds (especially phenylpropanoids) and their quantity in suspension is higher than those in calli. Aging of calli was followed by accumulation of xanthones and decrease of the phenolic acid content. Some of the isolated xanthones are known to occur in intact plants of C. erythraea (especially in roots), others occur also in other species of this genus, e.g., C littorale. Further compounds have not, so far, been reported from C. erythraea. Many other occurring in intact plants of C. erythraea were not identified in the tissue culture (cf. data in Thble 1)." [Bajaj MAPS 1]
"The iridoids (bitters) are considered to be the main active constituents of centaury, and include gentiopicroside (about 2%), with centapicrin, gentioflavoside, sweroside and swertiamarin and m-hydroxybenzoylesters of sweroside, and catapicrin. Highly methylated xanthones, including eustomin and 8-demethyleustomin, have been found recently. Alkaloids of the pyridine type, including genti- anine, gentianidine, gentioflavine, are also found in trace amounts. The triterpenoids α- and β-amyrin, erythrodiol, crataegolic acid, oleanolic acid and sitosterol are also present". [HMI Stockey]
"Contains several bitter glucosides (gentiopi- crin, centapicrin, swertiamarin, gentioflavo- side, and sweroside), alkaloids, (gentianine, gentianidine, gentioflavine, etc.), phenolic acids (protocatechuic, m- and p-hydroxyben- zoic,vanillic,syringic,p-coumaric,ferulic,3,4- dihydroxyphenylacetic, sinapic, caffeic acids, etc.), triterpenes (a- and b-amyrin, erythrodiol, crataegolic acid, oleanolic acid, oleanolic lactone,etc.),xanthones(decussatin,eustomin, desmethyleustomin, methylbellidifolin, etc.), sterols(sitosterol,campesterol,etc.),fattyacids (palmitic and stearic acids, etc.), n-alkanes (nonacosaneandheptacosane,etc.),wax,amino acids, and others (WICHTL)." [Leung ECNI]
"Triterpenoid Alpha-amyrin; Beta-amyrin; Erythrodiol; Crataegolic acid; Oleanolic acid; Oleanolic lactone; Sitosterol; Stigmasterol; Campesterol; Brassicasterol" [Skidmore-Roth MHH]
"Phenolic acid Antipyretic Flavonoid" [Skidmore-Roth MHH]
"Xanthone Eustomin; Demethyleustomin" [Skidmore-Roth MHH]
"Fatty acid Palmitic acid; Stearic acid" [Skidmore-Roth MHH]
Centaurium erythraea Rafn. - Secoiridoid glucosides, xanthones, benzophenone, swertiamarin, gentiopicroside.305,321,322,323 - Antipyretic, antidiabetic. [CRNAH]
"In Centaurium erythraea, 2,30,4,6-tetrahydroxybenzophenone is obtained from the condensation of 3-hydroxybenzoyl-CoA and three malonyl-CoA units [30,35]." [Kuete MPRA]
"Centauroside, centapicrin, flavonoids, gentiopicrin, gentiopicroside, isocoumarin, phenolic acids, swertiamarin, triterpenes, wertiamarine, and xanthones [131-135]." [Kuete TSAMP]
"Erythrocentaurin
Biological Sources It is obtained from the plant Centaurium umbellatum Gilib. (Erythraea
centaurium Pers.), Gentinaceae or Swertia japonica (Maxim.) Makino Gentianaceae. It is also
accomplished by carrying out the hydrolysis of swertiamarin and erytaurin with emulsin.
Isolation Erythroceantaurin may be isolated from C. umbellatum by the method of Kariyone
and Matsushima." [PCPB]
"Characteristic Features
1. It is obtained as long needles having mp 140-141°C.
2. It turns red on being exposed to sunlight.
3. It has uvmax: 223, 290 nm (log ∈ 4.30, 3.13).
Uses It is mostly employed as a bitter tonic." [PCPB]
Cultivation & Propagation
"Prefers a well-drained sandy loam with some peat[1] and a sunny position[238]. It avoids wet or rich soils[115]. Plants are not easy to grow in a garden[4]. The flowers only open in fine weather and close at midday[4]. Although the growing plant is scentless, if the cut stems are immersed in warm water for 24 hours a most penetrating odour will be observed on distillation[245]. A very variable plant, some botanists divide it into a number of separate species[4]." [PFAF]
"Seed - sow February to May in situ or as soon as it is ripe in situ[17]. Germination is usually rapid." [PFAF]
"Propagation of C. erythraea by means of tissue culture appears feasible. Regeneration of this plant can be easily manipulated by changing the hormonal composition of the medium. Plants under repeated in vitro culture rarely vitrify and can be transferred back into nonsterile conditions (even to saline soil, as dem- onstrated by Laurova et al. 1986a). This method does not eliminate the necessity of field cultivation, but may greatly increase its reliability by eliminating the plant propagation as a limiting factor. There are two possible ways for micropropaga- tion:" [Bajaj MAPS 1]
"a) Embryogenesis of Suspensions. Given optimal conditions, this method can yield about 200 embryos per flask inoculated by 5 ml of source suspension in ca. 60 days. These embryos require further 2 months for planting into nonsterile conditions." [Bajaj MAPS 1]
"b) Propagation by Leaf Segments. This method can yield approximately 600 shoots in 2 months from one rosette plant grown in vitro. After 1 more month, these shoots can be transferred to nonsterile conditions." [Bajaj MAPS 1]
"The onset of production of bitter substances in suspension cultures during embryogenesis suggests the possibility of biotechnological exploitation of this system, e.g., as achieved with Digitalis [anata (Garve et al. 1980). A great advan- tage of C erythraea is the ease of inducing somatic embryogenesis in suspension, which does not increase the contamination risk. In small volumes, the whole growth and production cycle requires about 50 - 60 days. The next step in research should be to select strains with a reasonably high productivity of secoiridoid glucosides in suspension cultures." [Bajaj MAPS 1]
"The occurrence of secondary metabolites in tissue cultures of species from Gen- tianaceae has been investigated with regard to Gentiana cruciata L. (Wesolowska et al. 1985) and Centaurium erythraea Rafn (Meravy 1987; Baresova 1988)." [Bajaj MAPS 4]
"Thin layer chromatography (TLC) showed the presence of secoiridoid gluco- sides in the callus tissue of G. cruciata [Gentiana cruciata L.] and plants developed from it. Meravy (1987) reported the occurrence of xanthones, phenolic acids, and flavonoids in the callus and suspension culture of Centaurium erythraea. The author indicated differences in the contents of those substances in the cultures investigated. On the basis of organoleptic tests, Baresova (1988) concluded that the bitter substances appeared only in minor quantities in embryogenic suspension cultures and in shoots formed in the light." [Bajaj MAPS 4]
"However, some plants grow very poorly unless they are mycorrhizal even in soils high in nutrients: two very different examples are Blais (oil palm: Blal et al. 1990) and Centaurium (Grime et al. 1987)." [Heijden ME]
"A. rhizogenes–mediated transformation can be exploited for producing terpenoids using plants as bioreactors." [Ramawat NP]
"...secondary metabolites are biosynthesized and accumulated in the roots/hairy roots; nevertheless, some of them can be produced and/or stored in the aerial parts of the plant. Thereby, the total spectrum of secoiridoids that were detected in the non-transformed plants could be provided in vitro at eightfold superior levels in the roots and aerial parts of Centaurium erythraea Ri-plants [100]." [Ramawat NP]
"Centaurium erythraea Rafn (Gentianaceae) is a traditional medicinal plant of Croatia that accumulates monoterpenoids in the aerial parts [99] (Table 95.1). C. erythraea hairy roots, placed in the medium added with IAA and BAP, formed shoots which were rooted at 68–97% without any hormonal supplement [100]. The Ri-plants regeneration could be associated to the forma- tion of embryogenic calli [100]." [Ramawat NP]
"An overview of the literature reveals that plant regeneration from hairy root segments can take, spontaneously, directly or indirectly (after a callusing phase before shoot regeneration) several developmental ways. Thereby, buds were initiated from adventitious Ri-root parts with or without exogenous growth regulators [66].... Plants coming from leaf explants of Centaurium erythraea Raf co- cultured with the A. rhizogenes strain LBA 9402, carrying a binary vector, were reported by Piatczak et al. [100]. Using binary vectors, deleted oncogenes, the problem of the surprising hairy root phenotype may be bypassed." [Ramawat NP]
"Centaury (sen’taw-ree) Scientific names: Centaurium erythraea, Centaurium umbellatum, Centaurium minus" [Skidmore-Roth MHH]
(Centaurium erythraea Rafn) "Synonyms — Centaurium minus auct., Centaurium umbellatum Gilib., Erythraea centaurium auct." [HMH Duke]
"Synonym(s) and related species Century, Common centaury, Feverwort. Centaurium minus Auct. subsp. minus, Centaurium minus Moench, Centaurium umbellatum Gilib., Erythraea centaur- ium (L.) Pers." [HMI Stockey]
"Centaurium erythraea Rafn. (syn. C. umbellatum Gilib., C. minus Moench and Erythraea centaurium Pers.) (Family Gentianaceae)." [Leung ECNI]
Image References
"Annual, biennial, glabrous. Stem: erect, branched or simple below inflorescence. Leaf: cauline, opposite, also basal or not. Inflorescence: cyme. Flower: parts generally in 5s; calyx lobes >> tube (discounting thin membrane between lobes in Centaurium tenuiflorum), ± appressed to corolla tube; corolla salverform, generally pink, lobes < tube, elliptic-oblong, entire or minutely toothed at tip, scales 0, nectary pits 0 (nectaries elsewhere 0); stamens initially curved to 1 side, dehisced anthers spirally twisted; ovary sessile, style thread-like (much wider than filaments), cleft 0.5–1 mm, deciduous, stigmas 2, elliptic to ovate.
± 15 species: temperate, dry-mesic tropics, ± Eurasia, northern Africa, Mexico. (Latin: centaur, mythological discoverer of plants medicinal properties) Native species moved to Zeltnera." [Jepson]
"There are about 14 species of Centaurium in Europe but there is disagreement over their identification and infraspecific hybrids occur which are also interfertile so the identity of local populations can be unclear (Tutin et al 1973). The Flora of Turkey (Davis 1978) gives five Centaurium species, including Centaurium erythraea." [TWHT]
"Collect [Centaurium erythraea] when in flower (Bisset & Wichtl 2001). Bradley (2006) states that the greatest bitterness is in two esters of sweroside found in the flower ovary. Wild collection should be avoided as calcareous grassland is a priority habitat listed on the UK Biodiversity Action Plan (2009). This annual plant is a priority for cultivation, especially as Cullen (1775) states that plants are larger and more bitter when grown on fertile soil." [TWHT]
"Studies on the taxonomy of the Gentianaceae disagree (Meszáros et al 1996, Mansion & Struwe 2004) and there is debate on the number of species because of variation within species depending on environment. There is some hybridization between Centaurium erythraea and other species such as lesser centaury Centaurium pulchellum, which is a smaller annual with no basal rosette and fewer flowers often found on moist grassland near the sea, seaside centaury Centaurium littorale, which has distinctive narrow oblong leaves (Stace 1991) and is found in sandy turf and dunes, and perennial centaury Centaurium scilloides, which is distinguished by its procumbent habit with rounded, stalked leaves on the creeping stems, and is a rare plant found on cliff tops (Sterry 2006)." [TWHT]
"Other species used: Centaurium uliginosum, Centaurium littorale, Centaurium pulchellum (Van der Sluis & Labadie 1981). Culpeper also refers to a yellow variety with larger, darker green leaves and the stem passing through the middle of the leaf. This could be yellow wort Blackstonia perfoliata, an annual (Stace 1991) that is locally common on calcareous grassland. Culpeper also refers to a white flowered species, which could be Centaurium tenuiflorum, an annual and similar to Centaurium pulchellum, which is usually pink but rarely white. Centaurium tenuiflorum and Centaurium scilloides were both listed as vulnerable in the UK in 1994 (UK Biodiversity Action Plan 2009). Centaurium erythraea is listed as vulnerable and Centaurium uliginosum is listed as endangered in the Czech Republic, and Centaurium erythraea is listed as threatened by wild collection in Hungary (Lange 1998)." [TWHT]
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[2]
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Centaurium pulchellum (Sw.) Hayek ex Hand.-Mazz., Stadlm., Janch. & Faltis - "The native range of this species is Europe, Medit. to Sahara and Xinjiang. It is an annual and grows primarily in the temperate biome." [POWO]
Centaurium pulchellum var. altaicum (Griseb.) Cufod. - "The native range of this variety is Krym to SW. Siberia and N. India. It is an annual and grows primarily in the temperate biome." [POWO]
Centaurium meyeri (Bunge.) Druce - Ai Lei - (whole plant)Bitter glycoside, ophelic acid, chiretta.60 - Treat headache, fever, and infections. [CRNAH]
China Centaurium meyeri (Bunge.) Druce - Bitter glycoside, ophelic acid, chiretta.60 - Treat headache, fever and infections. [CRNAH]
Centaurium pulchellum - Elimination of stones from the kidney - Whole plant - Coumarins, alkaloid, oleanolic acid, erythrosterol, xanthones [Rai EthPlants]
Image References
Red-Listed [E-flora]
"General: Annual herb from a short taproot; stems solitary, simple or branched, 3-30 cm tall." [IFBC-E-flora]
"Leaves: Basal leaves forming a conspicuous rosette, egg-shaped, 5-25 mm long, rounded at the tip; stem leaves narrower and abruptly pointed." [IFBC-E-flora]
"Habitat / Range Moist meadows in the lowland zone; rare in SW BC, known only from SE Vancouver Island and Chatham Island; S to NV and CA." [IFBC-E-flora]
Status: Native [E-flora]
Synonyms
Zeltnera venusta (A.Gray) G.Mans. - "The native range of this species is California to Mexico (NW. Baja California, Sonora, Chihuahua). It is an annual and grows primarily in the desert or dry shrubland biome." [POWO]
"Canchalagua (Centaurium venestum) Description: The leaves of this plant are broadly ovate to lanceolate. The flowers are rose colored with red spots in the white throat; sometimes the flowers are all white. This species occurs in dry habitats below 5,000 feet throughout the Sierra Nevada. It flowers from May to August. Interesting Facts: The genus name comes from the Greek kentaur (centaur). The centaur in Greek mythology was said to know the medicinal value of plants. The Luiseno used an infusion of this plant for fevers, whereas the Miwok used a decoction of the flowers for fevers (Bean and Saubel 1972). A related species (C. scilloides) was grown as an ornamental and is reported to have medicinal properties." [Vizgirdas WPSN]